Evidence-Based Health Assessments

Evidence-Based Health Assessments

Paper instructions:
The unit readings focused on health assessments and the importance of using an evidence-based model. One goal of health assessments, particularly community-based ones, is to determine specific health problems and concerns that affect the health, wellness, and ability of individuals and groups, preventing them from functioning at their optimum levels.

In this discussion, you will explore evidence-based techniques and strategies that can be used when conducting health assessments. Complete the following:
•Review the assigned readings for this unit.
•Identify and discuss key techniques and activities that should be included in health assessments, considering how individual health assessments differ from community ones.
•Describe health assessment activities and techniques that can be used to determine assets or gaps in an agency’s ability to meet community needs

49
URBAN INDIAN VOICES:
A COMMUNITY-BASED PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH
HEALTH AND NEEDS ASSESSMENT
Chad V. Johnson, PhD, Jami Bartgis, PhD, Jody A. Worley, PhD, Chan M. Hellman, PhD,
and Russell Burkhart
Abstract: This community-based participatory research (CBPR) project utilized
a mixed-methods survey design to identify urban (Tulsa, OK) American Indian
(AI) strengths and needs. Six hundred fifty AIs (550 adults and 100 youth) were
surveyed regarding their attitudes and beliefs about their community. These
results were used in conjunction with other community research efforts to inform
program development, support proposals for external funding, and develop
a comprehensive service system model to be implemented in the community.
INTRODUCTION
As a result of social inequalities, high poverty and unemployment rates, disparities in
healthcare access and utilization, and cultural/historical trauma, urban American Indians (AIs),
who make up 45% to 67% of the total AI population (Grant & Brown, 2003; Urban Indian Health
Institute, 2007), face a host of physical and mental health concerns (Urban Indian Health Institute,
2004). More AIs experience serious mental illness, commit suicide, and report mental distress than
do members of any other racial group, and they do so at twice the rate of the general population
(Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, 2004; Grant & Brown).A multitude
of challenges threaten AI youth in particular. According to the Harvard Project on American Indian
Economic Development, Native youth are 60% more likely than their non-Native peers to get into
fights at school. They also are more likely to drink heavily, abuse drugs, and attempt suicide. They
have disproportionate arrest rates, as well as a teen birth rate 50% higher than that of non-Native
youth (Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development).50 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
AI communities frequently use needs assessments to evaluate current health, mental health,
and community needs and to gain empirical data for program development and external funding
support to address these needs. A special issue of American Indian and Alaska Native Mental
Health Research presented several examples of needs assessments from Native communities around
the country (Manson, 1999). The community needs assessment discussed here, which represents
findings from one site funded through the Circles of Care Initiative (Manson, 2004), complements
this earlier work. We hope that this project might serve as a model for other AI community needs
assessments and research partnerships, particularly in urban settings.
ORGANIZATIONAL OVERVIEW
Active for over 30 years, Indian Health Care Resource Center of Tulsa, Inc. (IHCRC) is
a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, comprehensive health care facility, governed by a local volunteer Board of
Trustees, the majority of whom are AI. IHCRC strives to promote quality health care by providing
comprehensive culturally appropriate access to comprehensive medical and mental health care.
Medical, health education, dental, optometry, behavioral health, chemical dependency, HIV/AIDS
prevention, and pharmacy services are provided directly to the Tulsa AI community. Members of
any federally recognized tribe and their children under age 18 are eligible to receive care.
IHCRC’s service area consists of Tulsa County and contiguous regions––a blend of urban
areas and rural communities, substantial portions of which are impoverished as well as medically
and socially underserved. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the AI population within IHCRC’s
service area numbers 55,722, 41.9% of whom are under age 22 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002). Most
reside within 30 miles of Tulsa. Overall, Tulsa is home to one of the largest urban AI populations in
the U.S., with 86,118 AIs living in the metro area, comprising 10.7% of the total population (U.S.
Census Bureau). Many AIs in this area live close to affluent communities, but remain functionally
isolated from mainstream society because of cultural, economic, social, and educational barriers.
They make up a community within a community, a culture within a culture.
The clinic’s history highlights its importance as the necessary cultural foundation that would
organize and mobilize the Tulsa AI community for decades to come. Prior to the 1950s, most AIs
and Alaska Native peoples lived on reservations, in rural towns, or in tribal jurisdictional areas
(Fixico, 2000). In the 1950s and 1960s, Congress passed legislation focused on assimilating Indian
people into mainstream society. This legislation resulted in the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
Relocation/Employment Assistance Programs, which promised incentives to Native people for
leaving impoverished rural areas and moving to cities for jobs and education. Urban Indian leaders
soon began to emerge in relocation cities throughout the United States, including Tulsa. TheseURBAN INDIAN VOICES 51
leaders began organizing to address the issues facing relocated Native people, many of whom
found themselves culturally disconnected from their homes, isolated, lonely, and suffering from
the effects of city poverty.
The advocacy of these urban Indian leaders resulted in Congressional appropriation of
funds for a 1966 pilot project in Rapid City; by the 1970s, Congress had passed the Indian Health
Care Improvement Act, leading to the establishment of Urban Indian Health Centers in relocation
cities all over the country. IHCRC was founded to address the real need for culturally based health
and wellness services for the Tulsa AI community. The clinic has served as more than just a house
of physical healing: IHCRC has provided the infrastructure necessary for inter-tribal community
connections, community education about health and wellness, and 30 years of advocacy that has
built up the spirits, hearts, and minds of the community.
AI Mental Health in Oklahoma
There is a severe lack of culturally sensitive mental health services for AIs in Oklahoma,
particularly for youth. IHCRC strives to achieve organizational cultural competence; it is an ongoing
developmental process that requires reflection, evaluation, and the ability to change. Cultural
competence is particularly challenging because more than 150 different tribes are represented in
the Tulsa area, each with different customs, beliefs, languages, and traditional healing practices.
However, there are some common factors that tie AI people together, including belief in the Creator
and the use of holistic healing processes. The culturally based services at IHCRC reflect this common
thread of holistic care for AI people. In addition to comprehensive health and behavioral health
services, IHCRC provides community-based cultural programs and services, including Indian
youth leadership development; after-school programs about traditional foods, music, dance, and
arts; connections to spiritual healing resources for adults suffering from substance addiction; and
incorporation of cultural elements into treatment plans for young people suffering from mental
illness.
Unfortunately, the state’s Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse has suffered
severe funding cuts over the past several years. As a result, mental health and substance abuse
services across Oklahoma have been greatly reduced, and service provision is often fragmented
and ad hoc. Families, legal authorities, providers, educators, public officials, and community
leaders often lack knowledge regarding the problems facing AIs, as well as appropriate treatments,
which further limits behavioral health services. Additionally, the social stigma associated with
mental health and substance abuse treatment in AI communities negatively affects both referrals52 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
for care and intervention. Other variables known to limit AIs’ access to care include cost, lack
of transportation, and lack of trust in an often transient and marginally qualified cadre of service
providers (Cunningham & Cornelius, 1995).
Circles of Care Program
In September 2005, the Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration
(SAMHSA), Center for Mental Health Services Circles of Care program funded the Strengthening
Our Children project at IHCRC in September 2005; the needs assessment discussed here was a
component of this project. The purpose of the Strengthening Our Children project was to develop a
culturally appropriate service system model for treating children, youth, and their families who are
struggling with serious emotional difficulties. In other words, the goal was to expand the provision
of mental health services and to create a comprehensive mental health treatment delivery system to
fully accommodate the complex, multiple, and ever-changing needs of AI youth and their families.
The Circles of Care program supports the overall SAMHSA agenda for transformation of mental
health systems through a focus on infrastructure development and service capacity expansion.
IHCRC staff forged a number of partnerships with community agencies and stakeholders to
accomplish this goal. To assess the strengths and needs of the Tulsa AI community, IHCRC staff
joined with the University of Oklahoma-Tulsa to survey a community sample of adults and youth.
This paper presents the results of this community health and needs assessment.
PURPOSE
This paper consists of two parts. First, we describe the results of the community health
and needs assessment of AI youth and adults in the greater Tulsa area. The aims of this project
were to provide the leadership at IHCRC with important health and community data to inform the
development of a comprehensive service system model, enhance the quality of services provided,
and support applications for external funding. To achieve these aims, the following communitydeveloped research questions guided the project: (1) What do community members perceive as the
greatest social/health problems facing AIs in Tulsa? (2) What wellness and social programs are
desired? (3) How connected and safe do AIs feel in the Tulsa community? (4) What strengths does
the Tulsa AI community possess? and (5) How do adults and youth differ in their perceptions of
problems and needs?
Second, this paper briefly evaluates the process of conducting community-based participatory
research (CBPR), including the relationship between the university research partners and the Tulsa
AI community. CBPR is a culturally sensitive, collaborative, multi-method research approachURBAN INDIAN VOICES 53
that seeks to include the target community as an equal partner in every phase of the research and
to directly translate the findings into interventions and policies (Israel, Schulz, Parker, & Becker,
1998; Viswanathan et al., 2004). This commitment covers the spectrum including research design,
implementation, data collection, analysis, and dissemination of results. CBPR was chosen as the
research framework for a variety of reasons. For example, all involved felt that it was important to
conduct a collaborative, strengths-focused assessment. We aimed to improve the ability of IHCRC
and the Tulsa AI community to conduct independent research and evaluation, and to implement
interventions based on this research.
METHOD
CBPR
Consistent with the principles of CBPR, IHCRC staff assembled a community advisory
board to review and provide input on the research purpose, design, methodology, instrument
development, and results. This community advisory board consisted of tribal elders and leaders,
parents, youth, IHCRC staff and board members, and other people and local organizations interested
in developing programs to support the Tulsa AI community (e.g., police, teachers, social/youth
services workers, religious leaders). The community advisory board met monthly and was open to
the public. Meetings usually consisted of 15-35 attendees. Public announcements were sent through
IHCRC e-mail lists, newsletters, and other AI publications. The meeting were coordinated and
facilitated by a community coordinator (funded through the Circles of Care grant) and the IHCRC
project director/staff psychologist.
The research for this project followed APA ethical standards (APA, 2002) and was approved
by the University of Oklahoma’s IRB.
Measures
The community advisory board, IHCRC staff, and the university research partners worked
together to develop a telephone script and two surveys—one for adults and one for youth ages 14-
19. (Fearing that a long survey would decrease youth participation rates, the community advisory
board chose not to ask youth all of the questions that were asked of adult participants.) The team
reviewed existing surveys and needs assessments and constructed original items as proposed by
community members (e.g., items related to community problems, youth concerns, participation in
cultural activities, and feelings of community connection, as well as most of the open-ended items).
The surveys went through a number of revisions until all partners agreed on the content.54 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
After data were collected early in the interview process, the community advisory board
suggested further revisions to improve the survey, and other questions and response options were
added (e.g., “gambling” was added to the section on community problems list, and questions
concerning parental involvement were added to the youth survey). Because they were added later,
these items were not asked of all respondents and, thus, sample sizes for them were smaller; however,
the overall analyses were not significantly affected.
The surveys included information about physical health, behavioral health, wellness,
demographics, and community services and supports. Because the youth survey was intentionally
kept shorter and several items asked of adults were not asked of youth, we could not compare the
two groups on these items. The surveys contained both Likert and open-ended questions, resulting
in both quantitative and qualitative data.
Procedure
Participants were recruited in a variety of ways, including letters mailed out to parents
through Tulsa Indian Education (a community program providing academic support, resources,
and cultural programming for AI public school students and their families), ads placed in AI and
tribal newspapers, flyers passed out at area churches and community events, in-person requests at
area pow-wows, and in-person requests in the IHCRC waiting room and at the reception desk. We
attempted to obtain a representative sample from different regions (by zip code) in the Tulsa area.
(In one instance, recruitment letters were inadvertently sent to the incorrect school districts, which
probably resulted in low representation from those areas.) As an incentive, participants were offered
a $20 gift card to Wal-Mart. Surveys were conducted in an interview format, either via telephone or
in person, and took approximately 25 minutes each. A total of 550 adult interviews were conducted:
200 at IHCRC, 78 at area pow-wows, and 272 via telephone. We conducted a total of 100 youth
interviews: 15 at area pow-wows and 85 via telephone.
Research from the U.S. Department of Commerce (1999a, b) has shown that AI households
fall far below national averages in telephone service and computer/internet access. Thus, although
we utilized telephone interviews, we initially recruited participants using the various in-person
strategies mentioned above. It has also been noted that, given issues with trust and privacy, AIs tend
to prefer in-person contact to the impersonal nature of telephone interviews (Christopher, 2005;
Sobeck, 2003). Many participants who completed the survey via telephone were recruited in person
at community and cultural events.URBAN INDIAN VOICES 55
RESULTS
Results were presented and discussed at several community advisory board meetings.
Comments from these meetings are included in the following discussion.
Demographics and Personal Information
The community advisory board selected several demographic variables to investigate,
including age, gender, family indicators (e.g., number of children in home, marital status), income,
tribal affiliation, volunteerism, religious indicators (e.g., type of church attended and how frequently),
transportation, and telephone access. These variables were chosen because the board believed that
this information would provide the most meaningful categories for comparison and for evaluating
the representativeness of the sample. The median age of the adult participants was 38.0 years (mean
= 40.2; range = 18-83 years), and most had lived in the Tulsa area for quite some time (average =
25.05 years). The mean age of the youth participants was 15.9 years (range = 14-19 years). Of the
100 youth that participated in the survey, 43% were male and 57% were female. A disproportionate
number of women were represented in the adult sample (74.2% women vs. 25.8% men). According
to the U.S. Census Bureau (2002), the AI population in Tulsa County is composed of 52.1% women
and 47.9% men. Community members hypothesized that women are more likely to (a) go to IHCRC,
(b) bring their children for medical appointments, and (c) participate in surveys. They also indicated
that men may not be able to take time off from work as easily as women because of gender role
expectations. (However, members did note a growing impression that AI men are more frequently
becoming primary caretakers for their children.)
Of the 350 adult participants not interviewed at IHCRC, 58.5% indicated that they had
received care at IHCRC. Overall, 72% of the adults surveyed were familiar with and/or had received
services at IHCRC.
Family
Marriage and family status were similar to general 2000 U.S. Census data for Tulsa County
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Approximately 53.8% of the sample reported being in a marriage
or cohabitating relationship, compared with 52% overall in Tulsa County. A large majority of the
participants (85.3%) reported having at least one child, with an average of 2.43 children under
age 19. Tulsa County census data (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000) showed that 49.5% of families had
children less than 18 years old. (Although the 2000 U.S. Census considered children to be less than
18 years old, the community advisory board selected 19 years of age as the cutoff for youth because
its members felt there were a significant number of youth this age still living at home and dependent
on their parents or families.) The sample averaged 3.63 total children per family, compared with56 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
3.03 children per family in the general Tulsa County population. This information suggests that the
AI households in this sample contained more children (and total people), on average, than Tulsa
County households in general. Household members may be extended family such as nephews,
nieces, or other community children living in the home.
Tribes
We asked respondents to select a primary tribal affiliation and also to indicate whether
they identified with other tribes. In terms of primary tribal affiliation, more than 40 tribes were
represented in the adult sample. The majority of the respondents were Creek (30.5%), Cherokee
(28.7%), Choctaw (6.9%), and Osage (5.3%)—consistent with the general AI population in Tulsa.
Of those responding, 46.4% stated that their ancestry included other tribes. Ninety-two percent
of youth respondents were members of a federally recognized tribe; 16 tribes were represented,
with Cherokee (33%) and Creek (23%) named by the most respondents. Regarding AI blood, the
majority (62.7%) of participants were one half to full-blooded AI, and 44.9% were three quarters
to full-blooded AI. This finding suggests that most respondents had a high degree of AI lineage.
Income
Concerning household income, 45.7% of respondents indicated that they earned less than
$20,000 per year; 32.5%, between $20,000 and $35,000; and the remaining 21.8%, more than
$35,000. U.S. Census (2000) data revealed that the median household income for AIs in Tulsa
County was $32,367, and that 703 out of 8,987 total families with children under 18, both Native
and non-Native, were below the poverty line in the city of Tulsa.
Telephone and Transportation
When questioned about having a telephone and transportation, 94.9% of the adult
respondents reported having a telephone and 87.4%, access to dependable transportation. The
number of respondents having a telephone was higher than expected for AI households, and there
was no difference in telephone access among those interviewed in person and those interviewed
by telephone. Regarding transportation, 13% of the respondents reported they did not have access
to dependable transportation. Furthermore, on open-ended questions, many respondents indicated
that lack of transportation was a primary obstacle to obtaining health care.
Church attendance
Regarding church attendance, 30.9% responded that they attended frequently; 35.9%,
sometimes; and 23.2%, rarely. Only 9.9% responded that they never attended church. Almost half
(46.3%) of church attendees stated that they attended an Indian church.URBAN INDIAN VOICES 57
Volunteerism
Among adult respondents, 36.8% stated that they recently performed volunteer work. They
mentioned a wide range of volunteer activities, including work with community service agencies, AI
activities (e.g., pow-wows, stomp dances), church activities, school programs, providing assistance
to elders, and providing general assistance to others. Survey respondents appear to have a relatively
high rate of volunteerism, as national surveys indicate that, in general, an average of 26.2% adults
volunteer (Corporation for National and Community Service, 2008).
Health, Interest in Wellness Programs, and Youth Issues
This section of the survey inquired about self-reported health status, types of wellness and
health programming community members might participate in, and youth perspectives on common
activities and parental involvement.
Health
Regarding general health, 61.1% of adults reported being in good to excellent health, while
38.9% indicated poor to fair health (to keep the youth survey short, youth were not asked about
health). The community advisory board found this to be a high number of adults reporting poor to
fair health, and believe that these results are consistent with the high levels of health problems found
among AIs. As is often reported, AIs have higher levels of diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular
disease than the general population (Urban Indian Health Institute, 2004). Fewer than half of survey
respondents indicated having medical insurance coverage for themselves (43.6%) or their children
(35.3%, although 50.1% reported having Medicaid or Sooner Care for their children).
Wellness programs
Table 1 summarizes the adult respondents’ interest in participating in (or making available)
a variety of health and wellness programs (to keep the youth survey short, youth were not surveyed
about this topic). Respondents were most interested in the following wellness programs: traditional
Indian games and activities, Indian youth and family clubs, youth sports teams, and weight
management classes.58 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
Table 1
Interest in Wellness Programs1
Type of Program Mean SD
1. Traditional Indian Games & Activities 3.69 0.62
2. Indian Youth & Family Clubs 3.58 0.72
3. Youth Sports Teams 3.55 0.76
4. Weight Managemnt Classes 3.46 0.84
5. Walking Club 3.35 0.87
6. Healthy Cooking Classes 3.34 0.88
7. Aerobic Exercise Classes 3.31 0.87
8. Nutrition Classes 3.20 0.91
9. Stretching Classes 3.14 0.92
1A rating scale of 1-4 was used, with 1 = Don’t know, 2 = No, 3 = Maybe, and
4= Yes
Youth issues
Almost half (49%) of youth respondents indicated that they played in school or youth
sports leagues. Activities included softball, basketball, volleyball, baseball, track, soccer, football,
cheerleading, tennis, boxing, and golf. A majority of youth (55%) indicated that they would like to
participate in youth sports leagues outside of school. Many youth (61%) indicated that they would
be interested in participating in an Indian youth club or council. Participants also identified Indian
dancing, language classes, bead working, ribbon working, and learning more about Indian heritage
as activities they wished were available.
Youth were also surveyed about perceived parental involvement; 56.9% reported being
satisfied with their parents’ level of involvement in their lives, while 10.3% were at least somewhat
dissatisfied. Similarly, 57.8% reported wished their parents were at least somewhat more involved
with their lives, contrasted with 42.2% who wished their parents were at least somewhat less
involved.
AI Strengths
The community advisory board and university research partners desired to assess strengths
as well as needs and limitations in the community; therefore, adult and youth participants were
asked the following open-ended question: “What are the greatest strengths of American Indians?”
Overwhelmingly, community members emphasized Indigenous AI culture, including “NativeURBAN INDIAN VOICES 59
rituals,” “heritage,” “ceremonies,” and “tribal ways” as primary strengths. In addition, participants
recognized family—“strong family values” and the importance of “closeness among family
members.” Participants viewed spirituality and religion as important strengths—traditional tribal
practices and beliefs as well as Christian ones. Community members noted unity among AIs as a
source of pride and resilience. They expressed a sense of “unity,” “togetherness,” and “solidarity.”
Finally, the ability to persevere in the face of adversity (e.g., “stubborn,” “determined,” “willpower”)
and the pride shown in Native traditions and culture were seen as vital strengths.
Statistical Analyses
The community advisory board wanted to examine the differing views of adults and youth.
Therefore, both surveys included the same questions regarding several topics, allowing comparison
of responses using a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). These topics included: attending
traditional events, importance of learning culture, likelihood of attending cultural events, life
satisfaction, stigma of mental health, safety of neighborhood, connection to Tulsa AI community, and
connection to tribal community. Results are provided in Table 2. We also compared adults and youth
on their ratings of several social and health issues: poverty, unemployment, public transportation,
racism, teen pregnancy, gangs, youth suicide, adult suicide, depression, anxiety, stress, obesity,
alcohol abuse, drug abuse, youth tobacco use, diabetes, child abuse or neglect, domestic violence,
school dropout rate, bullying at school, learning difficulties, availability of health care, and religious
or spiritual problems. Results are provided in Table 3. We computed effect sizes for the adult vs.
youth comparisons. The partial eta-squared (η2) is an effect size index that reflects the proportion
of effect and error variance that is attributable to the effect. Another type of effect size is Cohen’s
d-statistic (Cohen, 1992), which is, essentially, a difference between standardized means.
AI Heritage
We surveyed participants regarding their identification with and participation in traditional
or cultural American Indian activities and events; 69.8% of adults and 56.5% of youth indicated that
they attended such events at least sometimes. Only about 11.1% of adults and 14.1% of youth reported
never attending these events. Seventy-two percent of adults reported that it was very important for
their children to learn about traditional AI culture; in contrast, only 52% of youth stated it was very
important to them. In another discrepancy between adults and youth, 52% of adults—but merely
28.6% of youth—reported that they would frequently attend intertribal community social activities
if they were offered on a regular basis (only 0.9% of adults and 3.1% of youth said they would never
attend). Results (see Table 2 for complete statistics) indicated that adults were more likely to support
and participate in traditional events, F (1, 646) = 8.38, p = .004; partial η2 = .013. Likewise, adults60 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
responded more positively than youth to questions about the importance of learning traditions, F
(1, 632) = 16.53, p = .0001; partial η2 = .025. Adults also reported higher likelihood of supporting
and attending intertribal events than youth, F (1, 638) = 17.18, p = .00004; partial η2 = .026.
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics: Means, Standard Deviations, Skewness, and Kurtosis
Overall Youth Adult
n Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis n Mean SD n Mean SD F d
Attend
traditional events 648 2.92 1.01 -0.51 -0.87 99 2.65 0.98 549 2.96 1.01 8.38 0.31
Important to
learn traditions 634 3.60 0.66 -1.62 1.99 100 3.36 0.75 534 3.65 0.64 16.53 0.44
Intertribal
events 640 3.38 0.69 -0.89 0.42 98 3.11 0.72 542 3.42 0.69 17.18 0.45
Satisfied
with life 647 3.26 0.75 -0.78 0.13 100 3.50 0.64 547 3.22 0.77 11.91 0.39
Stigma to
mental health 646 1.93 0.87 0.58 -0.52 100 2.18 0.69 546 1.88 0.89 10.21 0.35
Safety of
neighborhood 643 2.75 0.91 -0.33 -0.67 100 2.97 0.78 543 2.71 0.93 7.18 0.31
Connected
to community 637 2.58 0.89 -0.41 -0.62 98 2.55 0.79 539 2.59 0.91 0.16 ns
Connected
to tribe 641 2.74 0.98 -0.52 -0.71 98 2.74 0.78 543 2.74 1.02 0.0001 ns
Table 3
Identified Community Problems1
Adult Sample Mean SD Youth Sample Mean SD
1. Alcohol Abuse 4.42 0.86 1. Alcohol Abuse 3.79 1.18
2. Diabetes 4.35 0.95 2. Drug Abuse 3.62 1.25
3. Obesity/Overweight 4.24 0.97 3. Youth Tobacco Use 3.61 1.21
4. Drug Abuse 4.22 1.04 4. Obesity 3.51 1.09
5. Youth Tobacco Abuse 4.12 1.02 5. Stress 3.46 1.16
6. Stress 4.04 1.06 6. Gangs 3.34 1.30
7. Depression 3.95 1.07 7. Diabetes 3.31 1.34
8. Gambling 3.86 1.10 8. Depression 3.30 1.12
9. Teen Pregnancy 3.84 1.07 9. Teen Pregnancy 3.28 1.30
10. Unemployment 3.80 1.03 10. School Dropout Rate 3.20 1.31
1A rating scale of 1-5 was used, with 1 = Not a problem and 5 = A severe problemURBAN INDIAN VOICES 61
Connection to Community
When asked about their feeling of community connection, 62.2% of adults and 61.2% of youth
reported feeling at least somewhat connected to the Tulsa AI community, while 37.8% and 38.7%
indicated feeling at least somewhat not connected, respectively. Thirteen percent of adults and 6.1%
of youth felt very connected; in contrast, 16.3% of adults and 12.2% of youth felt that they were not
connected at all. Moreover, 67.8% of adults and 74.5% of youth felt at least somewhat connected
to their specific tribes, while 32.2% and 25.5% reported feeling at least somewhat not connected,
respectively. A noteworthy percentage of adults (17.7%) felt that they were not connected at all to
their tribe, compared to 10.2% of youth. For each comparison, the more rigorous α = .025 criterion
for level of statistical significance resulted in the same set of conclusions as the conventional .05
criterion. However, none of these comparisons were statistically different; i.e., adults and youth
did not differ statistically in their reported feelings of connection with the greater AI community
or their specific tribe.
Adult participants listed a number of important qualities when asked the open-ended
question (youth were not asked): “What do you think a caring community should look like?” First,
respondents said a caring community should be “cohesive and collaborative.” Members should
“work and play well together” and “support one another.” Second, a caring community should “take
great care of its environment including parks, streets, and neighborhoods,” which should be “clean
and attractive to residents and guests alike.” Third, this community should be “welcoming, warm,
respectful, and promote happiness among its members.” Fourth, a caring community should have
plentiful programs and services for children, families, and those in need. These include outreach
programs, recreational facilities, counseling, after-school programs, adequate and accessible health
care, elder care, and money for things like funerals. Fifth, a caring community would reflect a high
level of AI cultural awareness, respect differences, and provide equal opportunities for everyone.
Finally, respondents stated that a caring community should be safe and relatively free from violence,
drugs, and violations of property and person.
Safety and Well-being
We surveyed participants as to their perceptions of community safety and their levels of
life satisfaction. Participants were asked to rate the perceived safety of their neighborhoods. Most
adults (62.2%) rated their neighborhood safety as good to excellent, while 12.2% perceived it as
poor. In contrast, 74.4% of youth perceived their neighborhood as safe, and only 3% thought the
level of safety was poor. Scores on questions about neighborhood safety were higher among youth
than among adults, F (1, 641) = 7.18, p = .008; partial η2 = .011. In other words, youth perceived
greater levels of safety and security in their neighborhoods than adults did.62 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
In terms of life satisfaction, 40.2% of adults and 57% of youth reported being very satisfied
with their lives right now. Conversely, 2.4% and 1% reported being very dissatisfied with their lives,
respectively. Higher scores were recorded from youth than from adults on questions pertaining to
life satisfaction, F (1, 645) = 11.91, p = .001; partial η2 = .018.
Perspectives on Mental Health
Regarding mental health, 41.8% of adults indicated that there is stigma attached to seeking
mental health care (33.5% said there was no such stigma, and 24.7% were unsure). In contrast, only
12% of youth reported perceiving such a stigma (62% did not, and 26% were unsure). Overall, youth
reported less stigma regarding mental health than adults, F (1, 644) = 10.21, p = .001; partial η2 =
.016. When asked why the stigma exists, adults reported concerns about being labeled or stigmatized,
being thought crazy or weak, and being ashamed of their problems; they also mentioned cultural
reasons (e.g., taboo, belief that AIs are private people). Youth thought that the stigma exists because
of the “shame” involved and “people’s pride.” Perceived causes of mental health problems included,
for adults, “substance abuse,” “stress/coping issues, “family background,” poverty/unemployment,
and health issues (e.g., “awareness of shorter life span,” “problems with weight and diabetes”), and,
for youth, “substance abuse,” “parents,” and “health issues.”
Identified Community Problems and Needs
Interviewers queried AI adult and youth participants regarding their ratings of 24 possible
problems. Table 3 lists the top ten problems identified by the participants in rank order by the mean
rating (1 = not a problem to 5 = a severe problem). Statistically significant differences between
youth and adult responses were noted on all social issues except racism, gangs, and religious or
spiritual problems. Adults reported higher scores on all issues; that is, adults were more likely than
youth to view each of the issues as a problem.
Participants were also asked, in open-ended question format, “What do you think are the
biggest problems faced by AIs who live in the Tulsa area?” The results were similar to the ranked list
above. Adults and youth reported the following categories, ranked in order of descending frequency:
Substance Use/Abuse (e.g., “Alcohol is still our biggest problem”), Lack of Tribal Services/Resources
(e.g., “There is no regional office for my tribe in Tulsa,” “We need more activities for kids and
food for families”), Unemployment/Poverty (e.g., “It is very difficult to find a job, especially if you
are Native”), Health Issues (e.g., “We need more clinics and better clinics,” “Diabetes and obesity
are major problems”), Lack of Education (e.g., “Poor education for Indian folks”), Lack of Indian
Culture/Education (e.g., “Lack of Native language,” “Kids don’t have enough educational places
to learn about their heritage”), Lack of Community Involvement and Leadership (e.g., “IndiansURBAN INDIAN VOICES 63
don’t communicate,” “Lack of connectedness among tribes”), and Racism/Prejudice/Discrimination
(e.g., “People think we’re drunks and we steal,” “They think that we’re savages,” “I’ve been called
a squaw”).
DISCUSSION
One of the primary purposes of the study was to identify community health and well-being
needs that could then be addressed through program and community development. The following
sections highlight the most pertinent areas for program development and intervention according to
the participants surveyed.
Substance Abuse
Participants consistently listed drug and alcohol abuse as the most serious problem (see
Table 3). Some community members noted that this perception may be the result of a perpetual
stereotype, as AIs and non-AIs alike continue to perpetuate the myth that AIs have a higher prevalence
of drinking than the general population (May, 1994). According to May, however, the evidence
shows a different picture: Prevalence of drinking varies widely among tribes and communities. The
research evidence suggests there are higher rates of binge drinking among AIs who drink, but not
a higher prevalence of drinking overall (May). The fact remains, however, that participants viewed
substance abuse as a major threat to community and individual health. Participants reported that
substance abuse treatment and counseling was one of the most needed community services.
Health issues
Diabetes and obesity were reported as the most problematic health issues for AIs (see Table
3), and it appears that programs targeting prevention and treatment of these issues are warranted.
Of course, access to health care must also be addressed. A number of respondents noted that there
was a lack of health care services and insurance in the Tulsa area, and that increased health services
and improved health care were the highest priorities for the community.
Mental health issues
Although the adult community sample was divided on whether there is stigma attached to
seeking mental health care, participants agreed that stress and depression were serious problems
in the community (see Table 3). Programs designed to address these issues, especially preventive
measures, appear to be needed. Indeed, prevention, education, and treatment were noted as highly
needed health services in Tulsa. It is unclear why youth and adults had different views on the stigma64 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
attached to mental health care. It may be that youth have not yet developed such a stigma, or their
views may represent a change in attitude toward mental health services. This finding could also
be an example of “rose-colored glasses” among youth—who, although aware of problems among
their peers, may maintain hope that things are not that bad and will improve.
Similarly, we do not know why adults and youth differed on ratings of safety and well-being.
It might be that youth have experienced less discrimination and frustration with life than adults have,
or youth may differ in their perception of the world, influenced by the so-called “optimism of youth”
and the feeling of invulnerability that is common to youth. Perhaps their lives appear improved
compared with those of the adults around them, although current rates of poverty, unemployment,
and mental health issues cast this idea in doubt.
Socioeconomic issues
Given the high incidence of poverty in the sample and community (almost half earned
less than $20,000 per year), and the large number of households with children, it is clear that
socioeconomic issues are of paramount importance. Poverty and unemployment were reported as
major problems, and many other issues noted by respondents have strong connections with poverty
(e.g., depression, lack of transportation, gangs, stress– see Results section and Table 3). For example,
many respondents reported that they lacked transportation. Although some community members
felt that the severity of this issue might be exaggerated, it is nonetheless a cause for concern. Even
those with dependable transportation may not necessarily have had convenient transportation (e.g.,
many had access to a car, but did not have money for travel expenses such as gas, repairs, and
inspections). Programs aimed at eliminating poverty and providing assistance for those in poverty
are greatly needed.
Cultural issues
The respondents appeared to highly value AI culture and activities focused on promoting
it. However, youth demonstrated significantly less participation and interest in traditional Native
activities than adults. Community members were concerned about this finding, and believed that
programs focused on developing this interest and nurturing the ethnic identity of AI youth were
needed. It is encouraging that almost 30% of youth indicated interest in frequently attending intertribal
community events, as such activities are the reality of urban Indian communities. Involving youth
in planning community activities and integrating traditional events into the framework of youth
culture are recommended.URBAN INDIAN VOICES 65
Youth Issues
Community members stressed that they were concerned about several youth issues, including
tobacco use, teen pregnancy, and educating youth about Native traditions and culture (see Results
section and Table 3). Youth themselves were primarily concerned about drug and alcohol problems
among their peers and community.
LIMITATIONS
There are a few notable limitations to this project. First, although we had hoped to achieve a
representative sample of AIs from the Tulsa area, there were far more female than male participants.
Thus, the findings may not represent the views of AI men. As with most social science and applied
research, we were not able to obtain a statistically random sample of participants. We utilized
purposive, snowball sampling to recruit participants and offered an incentive for participation.
Therefore, our confidence in generalizing the results from this study to all AIs, even in the Tulsa
area, is limited. Recruiting this sample took considerable effort on the parts of both the community
and university research partners, and we believe it provides meaningful data about community needs
and issues. Finally, administration of the survey items was not counterbalanced; thus, the possibility
exists that prior items influenced responses to later items. For example, respondents ranked a series
of problems first; they then responded to open-ended questions about perceived problems. It is
impossible to know whether their rankings influenced their answers to the open-ended questions.
An important component of CBPR is increasing the research capacity of the community. In
this vein, project staff adapted a research-training curriculum developed by the Los Angeles urban
AI community (directed by Carrie Johnson, PhD) to train AI community members as researchers
for the Circles of Care project. The training curriculum included the following modules: History of
Research in Indian Country, Institutional Review Boards (Protection of Human Participants Rights),
CBPR, Conducting Key Informant Interviews, and Conducting Focus Groups. These community
researchers, who were involved in collecting data with project staff, received a total of 8 hours of
training: 4 hours in the fall of 2006 and 4 in the spring of 2007. A total of 20 community members
(including 7 students from the university and 1 teenager) were trained to conduct research activities. A
full-time community coordinator and administrative assistant were also funded through the SAMSHA
grant. The community coordinator co-facilitated community advisory board meetings, developed
and facilitated community/research events, and served as primary liaison between IHCRC and
the Tulsa AI community. The administrative assistant recruited community participants, managed
administrative duties, and kept and disseminated records and project information.66 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
THE UNIVERSITY AND TULSA AI COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP
Both IHCRC staff and the university research partners were eager to work together on the
project for several reasons. First, both saw the benefit of combining resources to address health,
economic, social, and mental health needs of AIs in Oklahoma. Second, IHCRC staff recognized
the benefit of expanding research and evaluation capacity through collaborating with and receiving
training from the university research partners. Third, the university research partners realized that
developing a collaborative working relationship with IHCRC might increase scholarly understanding
of AI issues, build a trusting relationship that could lead to ongoing research and community service
projects, and improve recruitment and retention of AI faculty and students.
However, issues soon arose that exposed the challenges of CBPR. First, IHCRC staff asked
a non-Native university researcher to assist in conducting the needs assessment. Although the
researcher had received training in multicultural theory and social justice, he had only a passing
familiarity with CBPR, and first assumed that he should independently develop a survey instrument
and utilize university resources (e.g., graduate assistants, students) to collect the data with minimal
collaboration with the community—bringing Eurocentric and imperialistic assumptions and practices
to the research endeavor. When he learned that IHCRC staff wanted the research to be co-designed
and approved by community members, these assumptions caused him some initial frustration, mostly
due to his lack of familiarity with CBPR, the increased amount of time needed for completion of the
project, and perceived lack of control. However, after the initial misunderstanding, he recognized
the automatic, culturally encapsulated assumptions guiding his reactions, actively sought training
and education in CBPR and research among AIs, and fully embraced its underlying principles
and goals. This change of perspective became helpful when the university legal counsel had some
concern regarding intellectual property rights.
As is standard practice, when the university research partners entered into a contractual
agreement with IHCRC, the university legal counsel drafted a memorandum of understanding.
This initial document awarded all intellectual property rights to the university and its principal
investigator (a non-Native researcher). Although universities often use this practice to protect data
and publication rights, it directly contradicts the core principles of CBPR (Israel, Schulz, Parker,
& Becker, 1998; Viswanathan et al., 2004), which state that the research and its data belong to the
community and its members. The university research partners and IHCRC staff agreed that the
community and its representatives should have full intellectual property rights and discussed the
situation with legal representatives for both parties for 2-3 months, educating the university about
CBPR and research with Indigenous populations. It helped that they presented a consolidatedURBAN INDIAN VOICES 67
front; in the end, the university legal counsel made provisions in the contract so that the researcher
could publish material from the project, in partnership (and with the approval of) IHCRC and the
community.
Community-based participatory research projects represent a valuable opportunity for both
communities and universities. This project demonstrated a successful partnership that benefitted
IHCRC, the university research partners, and the Tulsa AI community in a variety of ways:
University faculty and staff learned about CBPR and community members learned about
the research process. Many community members received research training and collaborated in
the implementation of the research project. They—and the community advisory board—gained
a greater appreciation for research and its usefulness for improving community conditions. They
also experienced empowerment (e.g., they negotiated intellectual property rights with the university
and claimed ownership of the data), and increased their capacity for evaluating, designing, and
implementing research projects for themselves—an important principle of CBPR.
The project provided meaningful information that was disseminated to the community, and
increased capacity for an Urban Indian Health Center. In accordance with CBPR principles, the
results from this study have been disseminated to the community and beyond. For example, the
university research partners and IHCRC project director have presented the results of the project and
the CBPR process at national conferences. Also, the university research partners and the community
advisory board provided technical reports to community members, posted the results on the IHCRC
Web site, and presented the results at community meetings. One community leader expressed the
importance of “looking at our data” to improve conditions for the Tulsa AI community. The study
results also helped IHCRC prioritize its goals and allocate resources to those areas most needed
(e.g., development of substance abuse treatment and prevention and health promotion programs).
In addition, important strengths and needs were identified and included as part of a larger research
project to develop a comprehensive service system model. This model has been refined and presented
to IHCRC and the community, and is currently being implemented and evaluated.
The project served to assist IHCRC with developing an improved system of care and
additional programs. For example, IHCRC has successfully obtained three youth/family grants
for the next 3-5 years to address cultural traditions, food, physical activity, community gardening,
community building, and family/community empowerment (from the Centers for Disease Control,
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the new Oklahoma Tobacco Settlement Endowment Trust).
These programs are designed to teach healthy nutrition and sustainable food production, and involve
community members in gardening and communing together. They also include cultural components
and activities to emphasize Native beliefs and values.68 VOLUME 17, NUMBER 1
Additionally, the partnership forged through this study has led to other collaborative
research and service projects. For example, IHCRC and university research partners have submitted
a proposal to the National Institute of Mental Health to develop a community-based prevention
program focused on strengthening cultural identity to prevent substance abuse and mental illness
and to promote school functioning and youth assets. Moreover, work is underway to submit a grant
proposal the National Institutes of Health to address organ/tissue donation among AIs and to develop
a social marketing campaign.
We hope this project will serve other Urban Indian Health Centers in developing and
implementing community health research with university partners.
Chad V. Johnson, PhD
Assistant Professor
University of Oklahoma, Schusterman Center
Project Director
Center of Applied Research for Nonprofit Organizations
4502 E. 41st Street
Tulsa, OK 74135
Phone: 918/619-9042
E-mail: cvjohnson@ou.edu
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to recognize the immeasurable contributions of time and effort from
the IHCRC Circles of Care advisory board, administration, staff, volunteers, and the OU research
team. In particular, we want to thank the following people for their assistance designing, conducting,
and analyzing this study (in alphabetical order by last name): Coleman American Horse, Misty
Blevins, Robby Boston, Yvonne Cahwee and family, George Coser, Sheila Davis, Jimmy Deere,
Michelle Gourd, Lou Greenwood, Jack Guffey, Chris Hill, Deborah Hill and family, Sharon Lee,
Sonora Manley and family, Jennifer Moses, Rebecca Moses, Helen Norris, Steve Peck, Goldie
Phillips, Rita Rabbit, James Redbird, Stephen Shoemaker, Carmelita Skeeter, Clifford Springwater
and family, Joe Don Waters, and James Whiteshirt.Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.