Low-income schools

post has three assignments

Step 1: Based on your degree program (Ed.D.identify and summarize three general potential interests to study. Focus on identifying broad areas of interest leading to a potential research topic. For example, broad research topics might involve effective leadership styles among principals within successful low-income schools; or, best-practice teaching for special education students within inclusionary classrooms.
Step 2: After the identification and description of the three broad potential research topics, determine search terms/key words to be used in various databases (e.g., EBSCOhost, ERIC, ProQuest) to identify and review for each topic.

Compile both steps into a single document where you list the three topics you are interested in researching and the key terms you used to explore the library databases.
Length: 1-2 pages, not including title and reference pages

2: Discrimination and stimulus control

Order Description

Generalization and discrimination and stimulus control add tremendously to the survival value of learning because environments are always changing. Generalization is the tendency for the effects of learning to spread. In a classic study, Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) identified terminology for the ways a behavior may show generality:
1.Across settings and situations known as stimulus generalization, and occurs when responses that have been reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus occur in the presence of different, but similar stimuli (also referred to as a stimulus class). An example: When your cell phone rings (the stimuli) you have learned to answer the phone by saying “Hello.” At work, the phone on your desk has a different ring tone and when it rings you also pick up the receiver to answer and say “Hello.” The different types of ring tones all belong to the same stimulus class.
2.Across behaviors known as response generalization, and occurs when a similar but different response generalizes and spreads across environments or behaviors. For example, you learn to play and navigate a video game with a joystick controller at an arcade. Later you learn to play the same game on your computer at home, but instead of using a joystick controller to navigate you use your computer keyboard and mouse.
3.Over time known as response maintenance, which is the process of continuing to exhibit a behavior. This is essentially the opposite of forgetting (the focus of Chapter 12).

It is often mistakenly assumed that generalization is an automatic phenomenon, or that behavior will be learned vicariously from observing other’s engaging in behaviors. Parents, teachers, trainers, and managers, for example, need to be aware of the importance of having people perform a skill a number of times in a number of different situations. For example, a child who has learned to stop and look both ways before crossing a street may nevertheless run into the street after a ball. The idea is that reinforcement strengthens a response class, and not just a specific response. When the response class becomes too large it can result in stimulus overgeneralization. This occurs when similar, but distinct stimuli elicit the same response.

How do we learn to produce a certain behavior in presence of one stimulus (i.e., stop in front of a red sign versus a green one)? We do this through stimulus discrimination, which is the tendency for a behavior to occur in certain situations (i.e., in the presence of certain stimuli) but not in others (in the absence of the stimuli). As such, discrimination training can be viewed as the process of defining a response class. Using a stimulus discrimination technique, B. F. Skinner (1951) once taught pigeons to “read.” The pigeons would peck a disk when a sign read, “Peck,” and would not peck when a sign read “Don’t peck. Another example of stimulus discrimination is being able to recognize when people are lying from their facial expressions and other body language.

The term stimulus control is used in stimulus discrimination training and refers to the increased tendency to behave a certain way in one situation but not in another. For example, an individual operating a motor vehicle will usually stop at all red traffic lights, and this tendency is clearly a function of reinforcing and punishing consequences (i.e., increased likelihood that he won’t get into an accident, or get a traffic ticket for running a red light), but the individual can proceed through a red light, and might deliberately do so under certain circumstances (e.g., because he is already late to work).

Behavior change and skill acquisition programs are designed to develop, or increase, the frequency of target behaviors. However, engaging in a behavior now does not necessarily mean that the behavior will continue in the future. Similarly, engaging in a behavior in one setting does not mean that it will occur in other settings. Research has demonstrated that if you do not deliberately plan for learned behaviors to be generalized and maintained they are not likely to happen. For this Assignment, you will explore and apply techniques for generalizing and maintaining behaviors.

To prepare for this Assignment:
•Read Chapter 11 of your course textbook. Consider the relations between generalization, discrimination, and stimulus control.
•Read the assigned Steeg and Sullivan (2009) article.
•Review previous chapters on reinforcement and punishment, if needed.
•For an enhanced understanding of these concepts, you are encouraged to also explore the Optional Learning Resources for this week.
•Examine your own experiences from when you were a high school student and identify factors that worked well for you in maintaining academic behaviors.
•Read the following scenario:
Hazel, a 16-year old high school student, is given plenty of time in her English Composition class to work on writing. However, she usually does not complete her writing assignment within the time allotted during the class period. She rarely completes her English composition homework either.
•Engaging your knowledge of principles of reinforcement and punishment, consider the concepts of generalization, discrimination, and stimulus control, and propose procedures that could increase Hazel’s English composition classwork completion and homework completion behaviors.
•Once Hazel increases her English composition classwork completion and homework completion, consider how Hazel will maintain the positive behavior changes, and how the changes could be applied to other subjects, such as math.

Drawing on your reading of the Steege and Sullivan (2009) article and textbook, complete the following:
1.Explain the procedures you devised that could increase Hazel’s English composition classwork and homework completion.
2.Explain how Hazel will maintain the positive behavior changes, and how the changes could be applied to other subjects, such as math.

Support your Assignment with evidence from the assigned Learning Resources. Provide a reference list for resources you used for this Assignment:
Readings
•Chance, P. (2014). Learning and behavior (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ?Chapter 11, “Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control”

•Steege, M. W., & Sullivan, E. (2009). Generalization and maintenance of learned positive behavior. In A. Akin-Little, S. G. Little, M. Bray, & T. Kehle (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (pp. 189–201). Washington, DC: APA Books.
Note: You will access this article from the Walden Library databases.

3:The literature review is a critical piece in the research process because it helps a researcher determine what is currently known about a topic and identify gaps or further questions. Conducting a thorough literature review can be a time-consuming process, but the effort helps establish the foundation for everything that will follow. For this part of your Course Project, you will conduct a brief literature review to find information on the question you developed in Week 2. This will provide you with experience in searching databases and identifying applicable resources.
To prepare:
Review the information in Chapter 5 of the course text, focusing on the steps for conducting a literature review and for compiling your findings.
Using the question you selected in your Week 2 Project (Part 1 of the Course Project), locate 5 or more full-text research articles that are relevant to your PICOT question. Include at least 1 systematic review and 1 integrative review if possible. Use the search tools and techniques mentioned in your readings this week to enhance the comprehensiveness and objectivity of your review. You may gather these articles from any appropriate source, but make sure at least 3 of these articles are available as full-text versions through Walden Library’s databases.
Read through the articles carefully. Eliminate studies that are not appropriate and add others to your list as needed. Although you may include more, you are expected to include a minimum of five articles. Complete a literature review summary table using the Literature Review Summary Table Template located in this week’s Learning Resources.
Prepare to summarize and synthesize the literature using the information on writing a literature review found in Chapter 5 of the course text.
To complete:
Write a 3- to 4-page literature review that includes the following:
A synthesis of what the studies reveal about the current state of knowledge on the question that you developed
Point out inconsistencies and contradictions in the literature and offer possible explanations for inconsistencies.
Preliminary conclusions on whether the evidence provides strong support for a change in practice or whether further research is needed to adequately address your inquiry
Your literature review summary table with all references formatted in correct APA style
Note: Certain aspects of conducting a standard review of literature have not yet been covered in this course. Therefore, while you are invited to critically examine any aspect of the studies (e.g., a study’s design, appropriateness of the theoretic framework, data sampling methods), your conclusion should be considered preliminary. Bear in mind that five studies are typically not enough to reflect the full range of knowledge on a particular question and you are not expected to be familiar enough with research methodology to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of all aspects of the studies.

literature review